Time Discounting and Hand-Sanitization Behavior: Evidence from Japan

Whether non-compliance with hand sanitization is related to impatience or impulsivity is an unresolved issue. Several studies have argued that not maintaining hand sanitization requirements during a pandemic could relate to impatience or impulsivity. However, the impatience or impulsivity of hand sanitization needs to be investigated in pandemic-free situations, as government requirements for hand sanitization influence subjective preferences. Little research, however, has examined such associations in pandemic-neutral scenarios. To fill this gap, this study assesses the role of two aspects of time discounting—hyperbolic discounting and impatience—in influencing hand-sanitizing behavior in Japan. The study utilized two waves of 2021 and 2018 datasets derived from the Japanese population-based survey of the Preference Parameters Study of Osaka University (N = 725). The probit regression results provide partial support for deviation from hand sanitization as an impulsive decision because the phenomenon is evident only in females. There were no notable impacts of the impatience variable in any of the models or specifications. Our study provides important policy implications. We argue that one-size-fits-all policies may not solve the impulsivity associated with hand-sanitization behavior in Japan because the impulsivity problem is not commonly found among all respondents. Policymakers should consider underlying gender differences when designing future health-promoting measures.

Who Became Victims of Financial Frauds during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Japan?

The COVID-19 pandemic has provided a unique opportunity for fraudsters to innovatively swindle money through the trade of necessary goods and services. Although several incidents of financial fraud were reported during the pandemic, there is a lack of studies comparing financial frauds before and during the pandemic and the risk factors associated with frauds. This study uses two waves of a panel survey conducted before and during the pandemic and applies mean comparison tests and logit regressions to investigate financial frauds at the aggregate and specific levels. The comparative analysis shows no significant change in financial frauds at the aggregate level between before and during the pandemic. However, refund frauds for men have increased, while loan guarantee frauds for women have decreased significantly during the pandemic. The regression results show that being male, younger in age, living with family, having employment status, having a household income, household assets, having financial literacy, having a myopic view of the future, and having careful buying habits are associated with the probability of being victims of financial frauds during the pandemic. The study reveals differences in risk factors associated with victims of financial frauds at the aggregate and specific levels. The results further imply that risk factors differ across the types of fraud, which authorities should consider while combating financial frauds.

A Longitudinal Study on Loneliness during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Japan.

The prolonged COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated existing socioeconomic and health risk factors and added additional dimensions to the loneliness problem. Considering the temporal extension of COVID-19, which exposes people to various loneliness conditions, we examined the development of loneliness and changing risk factors based on age and gender. We used longitudinal data from Hiroshima University's nationwide survey in Japan, conducted before and during the pandemic, to categorize loneliness into three types: long-term (feeling of loneliness experienced both before and during the pandemic), post-pandemic (feeling of loneliness experienced throughout the whole pandemic period), and fresh (feeling of loneliness experienced only in the last year of the pandemic). Loneliness categorization is important because the prolonged existence of the COVID-19 pandemic has added additional dimensions to the loneliness problem, which existing studies rarely identify. As a result, the distinction between long-term and fresh loneliness remains unexplained. The weighted logit regression results revealed that many Japanese people have remained or became lonely during the pandemic and identified variations based on gender, age, and changes in socioeconomic and health characteristics. More precisely, almost 52% of the participants experienced long-term loneliness, while 8% of the participants experienced post-pandemic loneliness, and nearly 5% experienced fresh loneliness. Age and having children were associated with long-term loneliness; gender, age, leaving full-time employment, financial literacy, change in health status, and change in depression were associated with post-pandemic loneliness; and gender, having children, living in rural areas, change in household assets, financial literacy, changes in health status, and changes in depression were associated with fresh loneliness. These results indicated that long-term, post-pandemic, and fresh loneliness have distinct characteristics. The Japanese government should devise distinctive solutions for people suffering from varying loneliness before and during the pandemic rather than adopting a generalized approach.

Has Smartphone Use Influenced Loneliness during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Japan?

The influence of smartphone use on increased risk of feeling lonely has been recognized as a global public health concern. However, it is unclear whether this influence has changed during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, during which smartphones have become a particularly important means of communication due to health safety measures restricting personal interactions. We used Hiroshima University's online survey data collected from 18-28 February 2022, to assess the impact of smartphone use on loneliness in Japan. The final sample included 2630 participants aged over 20 years, with loneliness measured using the UCLA scale and smartphone use calculated as the duration of usage in minutes/day. Weighted logit regression analysis was used to examine the association between smartphone use and loneliness, with other demographic, socioeconomic, and psychological characteristics as explanatory variables. Contrary to conventional evidence, our findings show that smartphone use mitigated the risk of loneliness during the pandemic. This was especially true among females under 65 years old. We found that age, subjective health status, future anxiety, and depression impacted this relationship. The findings of this study can help guide policymaking by showing the importance of providing adequate digital platforms to manage loneliness and mental health during times of isolation.

Who Became Lonely during the COVID-19 Pandemic? An Investigation of the Socioeconomic Aspects of Loneliness in Japan.

The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted social and economic aspects of people's lives in different ways, causing them to experience different levels of loneliness. This study examines the extent of loneliness among men and women of various ages in Japan during the pandemic and attempts to determine the underlying causes. We used data from Hiroshima University's nationwide survey conducted before and during the pandemic in Japan. The sample consists of 3755 participants, of which 67% are men and 33% are women with an average age of 51 years (SD = 13.64). Using mean comparison tests and probit regression models, we show that loneliness is a common occurrence among the Japanese population and that a significant number of people became lonely for the first time during the pandemic. In general, loneliness was greater among younger respondents, but older people became lonelier during the pandemic. Simultaneously, we observed significant differences in loneliness across age and gender subsamples. Although depression and subjective health status contributed to loneliness, we found no single explanation for the loneliness experienced by people during the pandemic; rather, subsample analysis revealed that the causes of loneliness for each group differed. Nevertheless, we discovered that older people are at a higher risk of developing loneliness during the pandemic due to a variety of socioeconomic and behavioral factors. The findings of this study suggest that health authorities should not generalize cases of loneliness, but rather intervene individually in each group to avoid further complications.

Hesitancy towards the Third Dose of COVID-19 Vaccine among the Younger Generation in Japan.

The younger generation's hesitancy towards the COVID-19 vaccine in Japan received significant attention during the early stages of vaccination. However, there is a lack of a comprehensive study in Japan that analyzes the apprehension towards the third dose of vaccine, commonly known as the booster dose, and its underlying causes. Using data from an online panel survey conducted by the Hiroshima Institute of Health Economics Research at Hiroshima University, we examined the severity of booster dose aversion among youths of different ages. Our findings indicate that a sizeable proportion of the Japanese population, particularly younger men, are hesitant to receive the booster dose. Furthermore, an inter-age group difference in booster dose aversion exists only among men. According to the probit regression results, subjective health status and future anxiety are associated with the booster vaccine hesitancy of men and women of various age groups. Moreover, few socioeconomic and behavioral factors like marital status, having children, household income and assets, and having a myopic view of the future, are also associated with the booster dose aversion among youths of certain ages. Given the diverse attitude of the younger generation, our findings suggest that public health authorities should develop effective communication strategies to reduce vaccine apprehension in the society.

Satisfaction with the COVID-19 Economic Stimulus Policy: A Study of the Special Cash Payment Policy for Residents of Japan

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a recession in the global economy. Many households have been experiencing financial difficulties. In order to curb its ripple effects on households, the Japanese government distributed a one-time cash payment of JPY 100,000 to every registered resident at the beginning of the pandemic. We utilized Hiroshima University's Household Behavioral and Financial Survey in 2020 and 2021, and found that only 20% of the observations were satisfied with the one-time payment they received. We performed probit regression and found that those who were male, older, had a higher education level, and had anxiety about the future were less likely to be satisfied with this policy. Having a spouse, being a public official, and having higher household assets or better subjective health enhanced satisfaction with the policy. Our subsample analyses showed heterogeneity in satisfaction among various socioeconomic groups and in associations between their socioeconomic characteristics and policy satisfaction. The government should design future policies with due consideration of the challenges faced by various socioeconomic groups.

COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy among the Younger Generation in Japan.

Japan has vaccinated its older population; a mass vaccination program for younger citizens is underway. Accordingly, this study investigated vaccine hesitancy among younger Japanese citizens. We used online panel survey data from the Hiroshima Institute of Health Economics Research of Hiroshima University and applied probit regression models. Our study found that vaccine hesitancy among younger people was significantly higher than among older people. Moreover, vaccine hesitancy was significantly higher among younger women than younger men and inter-age-group differences in vaccine hesitancy were higher for younger men than for younger women. Regression demonstrated that subjective health status and anxiety about the future were significantly associated with vaccine hesitancy among younger women and younger men of all ages, respectively. Furthermore, marital status, university degree, anxiety about the future, and myopic view of the future had specific associations with vaccine hesitancy among younger women of different ages, while subjective health status, university degree, having children, financial literacy, household income and assets, and myopic view about the future had specific associations with vaccine hesitancy among younger men of varying ages. Therefore, these results suggest that policymakers should consider the diversity among the younger generation while developing effective, tailored communication strategies to reduce their vaccine hesitancy.

Loneliness during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison between Older and Younger People.

The precautionary measures and uncertainties surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic have serious psychological impacts on peoples' mental health. We used longitudinal data from Hiroshima University to investigate loneliness before and during the pandemic among older and younger people in Japan. We provide evidence that loneliness among both older and younger people increased considerably during the pandemic. Although loneliness among younger people is more pervasive, the magnitude of increase in loneliness during the pandemic is higher among older people. Our logit regression analysis shows that age, subjective health status, and feelings of depression are strongly associated with loneliness before and during the pandemic. Moreover, household income and financial satisfaction are associated with loneliness among older people during the pandemic while gender, marital status, living condition, and depression are associated with loneliness among younger people during the pandemic. The evidence of increasing loneliness during the pandemic is concerning for a traditionally well-connected and culturally collectivist society such as Japan. As loneliness has a proven connection with both physical and mental health, we suggest immediate policy interventions to provide mental health support for lonely people so they feel more cared for, secure, and socially connected.

Willing or Hesitant? A Socioeconomic Study on the Potential Acceptance of COVID-19 Vaccine in Japan.

The worldwide COVID-19 vaccination program is already underway, raising hopes and aspirations to contain the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic that halted economic and social activities. However, the issue of vaccine effectiveness and its side-effects is influencing the potential acceptance of vaccines. In this uncertain situation, we used data from a nationwide survey in Japan during February 2021, following the Japanese government's initial phase of COVID-19 vaccination. Our results show that 47% of the respondents are willing to take a vaccine once it is available, while 22% are not willing and another 31% remain indecisive. Our ordered probit regression results show that demographic, socioeconomic, and behavioral variables such as gender, age, subjective health status, children, household income, household assets, financial literacy, future anxiety, and myopic view of the future are associated with willingness to take a COVID-19 vaccine. Our findings suggest that Japan's government should not adopt a one-size-fits-all policy to promote the vaccination program, but rather target people with specific socioeconomic backgrounds who are less willing and more hesitant to take a vaccine.